According to the Criminal (Amendment) Act 2013, the age of consent in India is 18 years. People under the age of 17 cannot legally consent to sexual activity, which could lead to prosecution for legal rape. In 1892, the age of consent was 10 years, but it gradually increased to 18 years over time. There is an argument for lowering the age of consent to 16, as many cases of sexual assault reported to police involve individuals between the ages of 16 and 18 who have consensual sex but are reported by disapproving parents. The age of consent in Mexico is complex. Typically, Mexican states have a “primary” age of consent (which can be as low as 12), and sexual behavior with people under that age is still illegal. Sexual relations between adults and adolescents under the age of 18 are legally ambiguous: laws against corruption of minors, as well as Estupro laws, can be applied to such acts at the discretion of the Office of the Prosecutor. These laws are situational and subject to interpretation. The general age of consent in Mexico is 17 years. [1] In other states, there are fewer limits to the applicability of reporting obligations to lawful rape.

Often, these restrictions depend on the age of the victim and/or accused. For example, in California, all sexual activity involving minors is illegal. However, reporting obligations only apply to violations of certain offences, i.e. situations involving victims under the age of 16 where the age of the two parties is particularly different.27 Minimum age. In 27 states that do not have a uniform age of consent, laws set the age at which a person cannot legally have sex, regardless of the age of the accused (see second column of Table 1). The minimum age required in these states ranges from 10 to 16 years. The legality of sexual intercourse with a person who has exceeded the minimum age and the age of consent depends on the age difference between the two parties and/or the age of the defendant. Article 143 Sexual intercourse with parents or children, brothers or the relationship between adoptive and adoptive parents, with in-laws, if the victim is over eighteen (18) years of age, constitutes a crime of incest, is punishable by four (4) to six (6) years in prison and continues on complaint of the injured party or his legal representative. If the victim is over fourteen (14) years of age and under eighteen (18) years of age, the penalty is increased by one means (1/2).

Unlike most rape laws, where violence is a key component of the crime, legal rape laws assume that any sexual activity with people under a certain age is coercion, even if both parties believe their participation is voluntary. In general, legal rape laws define the age at which a person is legally incapable of consenting to sexual activity. For example, the Idaho Supreme Court has defined the ability to give legal consent to: (1) the ability to recognize the possible consequences of sexual intercourse and, given this understanding, (2) the ability to make an informed choice. [4] The age at which a person is considered legally qualified to consent to sexual activity varies widely around the world – and even in Europe. Traditionally, many age of consent laws have mainly concerned men who perform sexual acts with underage girls and boys (the latter often fall under the sodomy and sodomy laws). This means that in some jurisdictions, problems with women who have sexual contact with underage partners have rarely been recognized. The age at which a person can be legally married may be different from the age of consent. In jurisdictions where the age of marriage is below the age of consent, these laws generally prevail over age of consent laws in the case of a married couple where one or both partners are less than the age of consent.

Some jurisdictions prohibit sexual intercourse outside of marriage, regardless of age, as in the case of Yemen. [50] [51] 13 Sexual intercourse with a woman under the age of 18 is illegal, regardless of the age of the accused. However, sexual acts that do not constitute penetration are legal in certain circumstances in cases where the victim is at least 16 years of age. 10 In some cases, a State`s laws relating to sexual intercourse are incompatible with one or more of its laws governing other types of sexual acts.

[11] To the extent that lawyers respect the obligations of their professional vocation, there is no need for state regulation. Self-regulation also helps to preserve the independence of the legal profession from government rule. An independent legal profession is an important force in keeping the government before the law, as the abuse of legal authority is more easily challenged by a profession whose members do not depend on the government to exercise the law. (2) The experience and training of a lawyerSometimes the competence required is that of a general practitioner. GPs often deal with “human rights” – they work on property closures, divorces, inheritance law and can deal with issues relating to small businesses. There are no fixed rules as to the types of legal issues that go beyond the experience of a general practitioner. [20] A breach of a provision should not in itself give rise to an action against a lawyer or, in such a case, should give rise to a presumption of breach of a legal obligation. Moreover, a violation of a rule does not necessarily justify another non-disciplinary remedy, such as disqualifying a lawyer in an ongoing dispute. The rules are intended to provide guidance to lawyers and a structure for the regulation of conduct by disciplinary authorities. They are not intended as a basis for civil liability. In addition, the purpose of the rules may be compromised if they are invoked by the opposing parties as procedural weapons.

The fact that a rule provides a fair basis for a lawyer`s self-assessment or for sanctioning a lawyer under the administration of a disciplinary authority does not mean that an antagonist in a parallel proceeding or settlement is entitled to request the application of the rule. However, since the rules set standards of conduct for lawyers, a lawyer`s violation of a rule may be evidence of a violation of the applicable standard of conduct. General practitioners may be able to handle cases in many areas of law. However, there are cases and areas of the law that should not be dealt with by those who are not individually trained, just as you would not expect an oral surgeon to perform brain surgery competently. If an individual practitioner takes on a heavy litigation with thousands of boxes of documents to review, they will drown in the work and not get much for the client. Rule 1.2.1 (a) and (b) (2) extends the obligation under Article 6068(a). It states that a lawyer “may not advise a client to engage or assist a client in conduct that he or she knows to be criminal, fraudulent or a violation of any law, rule or court decision” unless the lawyer can “advise or assist a client in making efforts in good faith to: determine the validity, the scope, service or application of a law, rule or judgment of a court. In prohibiting a lawyer from advising or assisting a client in the event of criminal, fraudulent or illegal conduct, Rule 1.2.1 emphasizes that the defence of a lawyer`s rights must include independent considerations that go beyond a client`s policies and objectives. In addition, a lawyer is not obliged to simply withdraw from a client in such a situation, but can help the client understand the valid scope, meaning and application of the law in question. In fact, Rule 1.2.1(b)(1) expressly provides that a lawyer “. discuss the legal consequences of a proposed behavior with the customer. That is, the lawyer can deter a client from achieving erroneous objectives through a better understanding of the law and help them find a remedy that serves their interests through valid and good faith application of the law. In other words, a lawyer has the power to advise a client “from the ethical edge” if they appear to have a criminal or fraudulent target.

Lawyers are first and foremost lawyers for the concerns of their clients. That said, California lawyers are expected to be “enthusiastic” lawyers for their clients. The California Supreme Court has confirmed this several times, stating that once an attorney agrees to represent a client, he or she must represent the client “diligently within the law.” [1] However, recent Decisions of the Court of Appeal have sought to mitigate the “zeal” of advocacy with the equally important concepts of courtesy and cooperation: [5] In order to avoid negligence in clients` affairs in the event of the death or disability of an individual practitioner, due diligence may require each practitioner to develop a plan in accordance with applicable regulations. who designates another competent lawyer to review the client`s records, inform each client of the lawyer`s death or disability, and determine if there is an immediate need for protection. See Rule 28 of the American Bar Association Model Rules for the Application of the Disciplinary Law for Lawyers (provides for the judicial appointment of a lawyer to inventory cases and take other protective measures in the absence of a plan for another lawyer to protect the interests of clients of a deceased or disabled lawyer). However, when it comes to advice, a lawyer must follow a fine line. As noted in footnote [1] to Rule 1.2.1, there is a critical difference between presenting an analysis of questionable conduct and recommending how a criminal offence or fraud could be committed with impunity. Thus, the alignment of the client`s needs with the integrity of the justice system is achieved when a lawyer acts within the ethical limits of advocacy established by law and the CPP. [13] Lawyers play a crucial role in preserving society. To fulfill this role, lawyers need to understand their relationship to our legal system. The rules of ethics, when properly applied, serve to define this relationship. Three major legal bodies deal with the competence of lawyers – the 6th Amendment`s right to effective assistance from a lawyer, tort laws on misconduct, and professional liability rules that deal with ethical obligations related to competent representation.

In what follows, we will discuss aspects of competent representation that are common in all jurisdictions. These courts recognize that California attorneys have duties to their clients, but also to the court system itself. [3] Often, the requirements of these two functions are not harmonious and can put lawyers in a position where they have to choose between competing duties for each. While lawyers are expected to represent clients to the best of their ability and owe clients the duty to present the case forcefully in as client-friendly a manner as applicable law permits, a lawyer is also a court official and must work to preserve the integrity of the judicial system through a truthful representation of interests inside and outside the courtroom. How, then, can lawyers reliably determine the ethical limits of their advocacy? [6] As a public citizen, a lawyer should seek to improve the law, access to the legal system, the administration of justice and the quality of services provided by the legal profession. As a member of a scholarly profession, a lawyer should cultivate knowledge of the law beyond its use for clients, use that knowledge in law reform, and work to strengthen legal education. In addition, a lawyer should promote public understanding and trust in the rule of law and the judicial system, given that legal institutions in a constitutional democracy depend on the participation and support of the population to maintain their authority.

When deciding whether adjuvant therapy is right for you, you should discuss the following questions with your doctor: The types of cancer treatment used as adjuvant therapy include: It contains an inactivated form of the virus and an adjuvant. These sample sentences are automatically selected from various online information sources to reflect the current use of the word “adjuvant.” The opinions expressed in the examples do not represent the opinion of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us your feedback. Ligand binding – either as an adjuvant used in vaccinations or as invasive units during natural infection – marks the most important molecular events that ultimately lead to innate immune responses and the development of antigen-specific acquired immunity. [30] [31] Due to the diversity of mechanisms and links between innate and adaptive immune responses, an adjuvant-enhanced innate immune response leads to an improved adaptive immune response. In particular, adjuvants can develop their immunostimulating effect after five immunofunctional activities. [28] Your doctor says the surgery to remove your tumor was successful, but then refers you to another doctor to consider more treatment — called adjuvant therapy. Alum can cause the secretion of interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β) by dendritic cells and other immune cells, an immune signal that promotes the production of antibodies. The alum adheres to the plasma membrane of the cell and reorganizes certain lipids there.

When pushed, dendritic cells absorb the antigen and accelerate the lymph nodes, where they firmly adhere to an auxiliary T lymphocyte and likely induce an immune response. A second mechanism depends on the alum killing immune cells at the injection site, although researchers don`t know exactly how alum kills these cells. It has been speculated that dying cells release DNA that serves as an immune alarm. Some studies have found that the DNA of dying cells causes them to adhere more closely to helper T cells, ultimately leading to an increased release of antibodies by B cells. Whatever the mechanism, alum is not a perfect adjuvant because it does not work with all antigens (e.g. malaria and tuberculosis). [17] However, recent research suggests that alum formulated as nanoparticles rather than microparticles may expand the benefits of alumnadjuvants and promote stronger adjuvant effects. [18] Borrowed from the Latin adjuvant-, adjuvant-, present adjuvÄre participle “help, help, facilitate” – more under the entry of aid 1 When discussing the safety of squalene as an adjuvant in 2006, the World Health Organization stated: “Follow-up for the detection of vaccine-related adverse events must be carried out.” [49] WHO has not published any such follow-up.

To understand the links between the innate immune response and the adaptive immune response to support adjuvant function in improving the adaptive immune response to a vaccine-specific antigen, the following points must be considered: There are many adjuvants, some of which are inorganic, that have the potential to increase immunity. [11] [12] Alum was the first aluminum salt used for this purpose, but was almost completely replaced by aluminum hydroxide and aluminum phosphate for commercial vaccines. [13] Aluminum salts are the most commonly used adjuvants in human vaccines. Their adjuvant activity was described in 1926. [14] There are many well-known adjuvants that are widely used, including aluminum salts, oils, and virosomes. [3] Following vaccinations to combat the H1N1 swine flu pandemic in 2009, an increased number of cases of narcolepsy (a chronic sleep disorder) was observed in children and adolescents in Scandinavian and other European countries. Narcolepsy has already been associated with the HLA DQB1*602 subtype, which has led to the prediction that it is an autoimmune process. After a series of epidemiological research, the researchers found that the higher incidence correlated with the use of the AS03-adjuvanted influenza vaccine (Pandemrix). Those who have been vaccinated with Pandemrix have a nearly twelve times higher risk of developing the disease. [36] [37] The vaccine adjuvant contained vitamin E, which was no more than the normal dietary intake of a day.

Vitamin E increases specific fragments of hypocretin that bind to DQB1*602 in cell culture experiments, leading to the hypothesis that autoimmunity may occur in genetically sensitive individuals,[38] but there are no clinical data to support this hypothesis. The third ingredient AS03 is polysorbate 80. [21] Polysorbate 80 is also found in the Oxford-AstraZeneca and Janssen COVID-19 vaccines. [39] [40] Aluminum salts used in many human vaccines are considered safe by the Food and Drug Administration,[33] Although there are studies suggesting the role of aluminum, particularly highly bioavailable antigen-aluminum complexes injected when used as an adjuvant, in the development of Alzheimer`s disease,[34] the majority of researchers do not support a causal relationship with aluminum. [35] Adjuvants can make vaccines reactogenic, often resulting in fever. This is often an expected result when vaccinated and is usually controlled by over-the-counter medications in infants when needed. Studying the mechanisms underlying TLR signaling has been important in understanding why adjuvants used during vaccinations are so important for improving adaptive immune responses to certain antigens. However, knowing that activation of TLR is not necessary for the immune-enhancing effects caused by common adjuvants, we can conclude that there are in all likelihood receptors other than TLRs that have not yet been characterized, opening the door to future research. How the use of yeast as an adjuvant for otherwise inadequate food mixtures unfolds its positive effect is not yet clear. Adjuvants in immunology are often used to modify or enhance the effect of a vaccine by stimulating the immune system to respond more strongly to the vaccine, thereby providing increased immunity to a particular disease.

Adjuvants accomplish this task by mimicking specific sets of evolutionarily conserved molecules, called pathogen-associated molecular models, which include liposomes, lipopolysaccharides, molecular cages for antigens, components of bacterial cell walls, and endocytosed nucleic acids such as RNA, double-stranded RNA, single-stranded DNA, and DNA containing unmethylated CpG dinucleotide. [4] Since the immune system has evolved to recognize these specific antigenic units, the presence of an adjuvant in conjunction with the vaccine can significantly increase the innate immune response to the antigen by improving the activities of dendritic cells, lymphocytes and macrophages by mimicking a natural infection. [5] [6] Britannica.com: Encyclopedia article on the adjuvant There is no scientific evidence that it has any value alone or as an adjuvant to sandal oil. Squalene is a natural organic compound used in vaccines for humans and animals. Squalene is an oil composed of carbon and hydrogen atoms, produced by plants and present in many foods. Squalene is also produced by the human liver as a precursor to cholesterol and is present in human sebum. [19] MF59 is an oil-in-water emulsion from squalene adjuvant used in some human vaccines. More than 22 million doses of a squalene-containing vaccine have been administered without safety concerns.

[20] AS03 is another adjuvant containing squalene. [21] Freund`s complete adjuvant is a solution of Mycobacterium tuberculosis inactivated in mineral oil, developed in 1930. It is not safe enough for human use. A version without bacteria, that is, only oil in water, is called an incomplete Freund adjuvant. It helps vaccines release antigens for a longer period of time. Despite the side effects, its potential benefits have led to some clinical trials. [14] Other vaccines, such as types of protein subunits, use an adjuvant, a substance that stimulates the immune system.

In Switzerland, a Swiss or a foreigner may be prescribed lethal drugs in which the recipient plays an active role in the administration of the drugs. [105] More generally, Article 115 of the Swiss Penal Code, which came into force in 1942 (written in 1918), considers assisted suicide a crime only if the motive is selfish. In countries where euthanasia or assisted suicide is legal, they are responsible for a total of 0.3 to 4.6% of deaths, of which more than 70% are due to cancer. In the states of Oregon and Washington, less than 1 percent of doctors write prescriptions each year that support suicide. Patient competence: Euthanasia is voluntary only if the patient is mentally competent, with a clear understanding of the options and consequences available and the ability to express this understanding and desire to end his or her own life. Determining or defining competence is not easy. Efforts to change government policies on human euthanasia in the 20th and 21st centuries had limited success in Western countries. The human euthanasia policy has also been developed by various NGOs, in particular medical associations and advocacy groups. Since March 2018, active human euthanasia has been legal in the Netherlands, Belgium, Colombia[1], Luxembourg, Western Australia and Canada. [2] Assisted suicide is legal in Switzerland, Germany, the Australian state of Victoria and the US states of Washington, Oregon, Colorado, Hawaii, Vermont, Maine[3], New Jersey[4], California[5] and the District of Columbia.

[6] Assisted suicide is more common than euthanasia. Places where people can end their lives in this way include Switzerland and a number of U.S. states, including California, Colorado, Hawaii, New Jersey, Oregon, Washington State, Vermont, and the District of Columbia. In the Australian state of Victoria, laws allowing assisted suicide came into force last month. The issue made headlines after a petition calling for the legalization of euthanasia and, with the full knowledge of nurses, plunged headlong into controversy. [92] A crime of mercy murder is the deliberate end of the life of a person suffering from an incurable and painful disease. The term – also known as the “right to die” – is most commonly used to describe voluntary euthanasia, although it is also used in reference to involuntary euthanasia and involuntary euthanasia. Admittedly, these conditions are quite restrictive, if not more restrictive than many consider appropriate.

In particular, the first condition restricts access to voluntary euthanasia to terminally ill persons. While this term is not unambiguous, it can be agreed at this time that it does not include those who become quadriplegic as a result of accidents or suffer from motor neuron disease, or people who succumb to forms of dementia such as Alzheimer`s disease, not to mention those affected by “existential suffering”. Those who believe that cases like these show that the first condition is too restrictive (e.g. Varelius, 2014), may nevertheless agree that inclusion as candidates for legalized voluntary euthanasia will likely make it much more difficult in many jurisdictions to obtain sufficient support for legalization (making it more difficult to assist terminally ill people who want to die). Nevertheless, they believe that voluntary euthanasia should be allowed for those who no longer consider their lives worth living, not just for the terminally ill. The fifth condition further restricts access to voluntary euthanasia by excluding those who are able to end their lives and can therefore be considered excessively restrictive by those who want to prevent terminally ill patients from attempting suicide. There will be others who will consider this condition too restrictive, as competent patients may still refuse nutrition and hydration (see, for example, Bernat, et al., 1993; Savulescu, 2014). While this is true, many competent dying people still want access to legalized medical assistance in dying instead of having to refuse food and hydration so they can maintain control over the timing of their death and avoid unnecessarily prolonging the process of death. As in other countries, a draft law on euthanasia is being prepared, allowing medical personnel to cause the death of a person “of full age, mentally fit and sick with an incurable, irreversible and incurable pathology”. Patients eligible for active or passive euthanasia in South Korea are reserved for terminally ill people who have no chance of recovery. Patients who have a positive reaction to medications or who are not in a rapidly deteriorating health condition that results in imminent death may not be qualified. Patients must have confirmation from a licensed physician and a physician to die with dignity, and comatose patients must have the consent of both guardians.

[102] The terminology surrounding euthanasia is sometimes applied inconsistently, but there is a difference between euthanasia, assisted suicide and assisted dying, the Guardian says. On February 6, 2015, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled unanimously in Carter v. Canada (GA) that Canadian adults who are mentally capable and who suffer unbearably and permanently are entitled to medical assistance when they die. However, the court suspended its decision for 12 months to give the government the ability to write laws and draft new laws and guidelines on euthanasia. [26] [27] In January 2016, the Court granted an additional 4-month extension of its suspension of the decision to give the newly elected Liberal government time to consult with Canadians on drafting legislation to comply with the decision. As an interim measure, he also ruled that provincial courts can now begin approving requests for euthanasia until the new law is passed. [28] Palliative sedation, where people can ask to be kept under deep sedation until they die, is allowed in many countries, including the Netherlands and France – is not euthanasia. Euthanasia can be voluntary or non-voluntary. In voluntary cases, the person accepts the end of his life.

In a non-voluntary case, the person cannot accept the decision, so the decision is made by a guardian. For example, a person in a coma who is unable to make a decision about whether to move away from life support would need a guardian to make the decision to end their life. A new survey of doctors in the Netherlands – where assisted suicide is legal – shows that around 1 in 3 has a patient with a mental illness or. There are several shortcomings in this statement. First, while good palliative care and palliative care make an important contribution to the care of the dying, neither is a panacea.

Sellers of alcoholic beverages should also ask customers to remove the identification of wallet/ID holders to physically handle the card. This will help to properly examine the identification. If you have any doubts about identification, you should refuse the sale of alcoholic beverages. However, it is important to remember that you cannot discriminate in terms of race, color, gender, religion, ancestry, disability, marital status, sexual orientation, or national origin, among other things. Persons under the age of 21 are not protected by age discrimination laws when it comes to the sale or service of alcoholic beverages. Employees who check ID for the sale of alcohol and anyone who wants to verify age must follow strict protocols. The types of identification considered legally acceptable to confirm a customer`s age vary by state and/or municipality. In addition, employers, bank employees, and human resources professionals must follow certain regulations to verify their identity and authorization to work in the United States. A simple acronym that helps people remember how to verify identification and detect false or borrowed identifications is the use of the F-L-A-G system. Some states accept special ids for undocumented immigrants or community ID cards.

However, an ID acceptable in one state may not be accepted in another. In fact, sometimes individual institutions cannot even accept out-of-state identification as a valid form of ID. It is always recommended that you consult the legal guidelines of your own state and/or municipality before creating a corporate policy. Below is a list of acceptable pieces of identification that you can present for your alcohol card test at the office. All identification documents must be originals, not photocopies or scans. Documents must be legible and not torn or glued together. Expired documents are not considered valid and will not be accepted. If you have a valid U.S. driver`s license, DMV-issued ID card, or passport, this is sufficient for identification purposes. If you do not have a valid identification document listed above, you must present TWO of the following identification documents, one of which must include a photo: To find employment in the United States, you must complete Form I-9.

New employees must either provide a single piece of identification that determines both identity and eligibility for employment, or two forms of identity – one that defines identity and the other that determines eligibility for work. Passports and military id cards are accepted, but are less common forms of identification in most regions. Therefore, most identity verifiers are not familiar with the security features of these documents. For these forms of identification, it is strongly recommended that organizations use the Identity Verification Guide to verify age. If the identification passes the sentiment, look, and question tests, return it to the customer and make the sale. If not, remove the sale and then return the ID or confiscate it, depending on your company`s policies. You have the right to refuse service to minors. If you confiscate an identity document, here are the requirements of article 25659 of the Business and Professional Code: If you suspect that an identity document is false, ask the holder of the identity document questions. If they don`t know the answers or get nervous, you probably have a fake ID on their hands.

Here are some questions you can ask the cardholder to determine if their ID is fake. Take the time to look at the identification in your hand. Know what to watch out for: Texas law doesn`t require someone over the age of 21 to present identification to buy alcohol in Texas. Nothing in the law explains certain forms of “valid” ID cards for alcohol purchases. However, because store clerks, waiters, and bartenders can be held criminally responsible for selling alcohol to minors, they often need a photo ID issued by a government agency. A store, bar or restaurant decides to sell alcohol to someone with an expired driver`s license, foreign passport or other id. What is acceptable is a question of the private commercial policy of this institution. If the customer is clearly over 21 years of age, the establishment may not require an identity document. The majority of age verification in the United States involves the sale of alcohol. All states have laws similar to the following California Code of Law for the Sale of Alcoholic Beverages: In most states, the following forms of identification are acceptable for age verification: Good faith identification (legally acceptable) is a card that contains these six characteristics: A company may have a stricter corporate policy than the law; For example, “Only California driver`s licenses/IDs are accepted” or “Anyone who purchases alcoholic beverages MUST present identification, regardless of age.” ABC recommends that you check the identification methodically and systematically. Identification forms that confirm both identity and work authorization include: Identifications may also include security features, such as: To ensure the legitimacy of all types of identity and work authorization, read the 700 pages of the United States.

Identification manual, often referred to as the “Bible” for identity verification. Offenses are punishable by up to a year in a county jail, while crimes are punishable by a state prison sentence. The legal drinking age in California is 21. You are never obliged to sell or serve alcohol to third parties. A person does not have the legal “right” to buy alcohol, but you do have the legal right to refuse to serve anyone who cannot provide sufficient proof of age. A very important step in preventing the illegal sale to minors is adequate training of staff on policies and laws relating to the sale of alcohol. Employees need to know what to look for when verifying ID cards in order to prevent the sale. They also need to know how to deal with the customer once a suspected fake ID is presented. The following internal company policies are stricter than what state law requires, but institutions have the right to insist on proof of age when buying alcohol: This is not legal advice. This is a summary of some applicable laws and general proposals. If you have any questions, you should consult independent legal counsel. A person who sells an alcoholic beverage to a minor will not commit a crime if the minor falsely claims to be 21 years of age or older with an apparently valid piece of identification that: Be aware that minors may look and act in a way that deceives you.

Some minors may look or behave young, and others may look or behave older to confuse you about their actual age.

HAE is a transmembrane serine/threonine protein kinase located in the plasma membrane [36]. HAE is expressed in the abscision areas of the floral organs, as well as at the base of the petioles and stems. Expression in flowers depends on the stage and is first observed in maturing flowers, which coincides with the competence for self-pollination. Transgenic plants that express an antisense constitutive construction of HAE have a defective cleavage of the floral organs, suggesting that HAE plays a role in abscision [36]. ABSCISSION-DEFICIENT INFLORESCENCE (IDA) encodes a small protein thought to be secreted necessary for the cleavage of floral organs, increasing the possibility that it may be the HAESA ligand [37]. The physiological control of abscision is discussed in more detail in Chapter 3 by Kozlowski and Pallardy (1997). Agustí, J., Merelo, P., Cercos, M., Tadeo, F. R., and Talon, M. (2008). Differential gene expression induced by ethylene during abscision of citrus leaves. J. Exp. Bot 59, 2717–2733.

doi: 10.1093/jxb/ern138 FIGURE 6-7. Schematic formation of a layer of abscesses around a diseased site of a prunus leaf. [After Samuel (1927).] (A–C) Leaf spots and ball holes by Xanthomonas arboricola pv. prunibacteria on (A) ornamental cherry leaves; Characteristic broad light green halos form around the infected area before all affected tissue falls, (B) on the peach and (C) on the plum. The shooting hole effect is especially evident on plum leaves. The cleavage of the floral organs in Arabidopsis is divided into four different stages of development.21 The first stage, which usually occurs early in the development of the flower, is the differentiation of specialized AZ cells, in which the organ later separates from the plant. When AZ cells are not differentiated, abscision does not occur, as in the blade-on-petiole 1 and 2 double mutant (BOP1 BOP2), which does not represent anatomically different AZ cells.17 The second phase begins when the organs prepare to separate from the plant, often with an environmental or hormonal stimulus, and the AZ cells become competent to respond to abscision signals. Subsequently, pectin begins to break down in the cell walls between the AZs, followed by an expansion in the size of the AZ cells.24 Ultimately, the actual separation of the organ overlaps and a woody protective layer develops on the distal side of the AZ to protect the plant from pathogenic attacks. Peng, G., Wu, J., Lu, W. and Li, J. (2013).

A polygalacturonase gene grouped in clade E is involved in the cleavage of lychee fruits. Sci. Hortic. 150, 244–250. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2012.10.029 Figure 26. Fresh cross-sections, which show the general characteristics of the xylem of various components of the cut rose. The sections are colored with toluidine blue O. (a) stem; (b) abscision zone; (c) the median region of the stem; (d) distal end of the stem.

Bar = 0.5 mm. Abscision can also occur in premature leaves as a defense of plants. Premature leaf cleavage has been shown to occur in response to an infestation of biliary aphids. By abbcing the leaves housing leafy poplars, plants have been shown to massively reduce the pest population, as 98% of aphids died in stripped galls. Abscision is selective and the risk of dropping leaves increases with the increase in the number of galls. A leaf with three or more galls was four times more likely to abstain than a leaf with a gall, and 20 times more likely to drop it than a leaf without galls. [1] The reduction in chlorophyll production in the leaves due to reduced sun exposure in autumn explains why some leaves turn yellow. However, the yellow color can attract aphids, so some trees instead color the leaves red by injecting a light pigment. [7] The loss of chlorophyll may also contribute to the abscision process.

Petersen, M., Sander, L., Child, R., Van Onckelen, H., Ulvskov, P., and Borkhardt, B. (1996). Isolation and characterization of a polygalacturonase specific to the dehiscence zone of Brassica napus pods. Plant Mol. Biol. 31, 517–527. doi: 10.1007/BF00042225 Berüter and Droz (1991) showed that during the period of apple fall before June, various treatments (shading, proximal border of the abscision zone, removal of seeds from attached fruits) induced fruit abscision. If the same treatments were applied after June, none of the fruits fall off. The data showed that during the lowering period before June, abscision was induced by blocking nutrient intake to the fruit abscision zone.